The first time a newfirefightercrosses the threshold into a burning building is a moment he will never forget. It is a moment filled with anticipation, excitement, and anxiety. Whether anew firefightercan succeed in that moment comes down to训练，其中的基本部分是Live Fire。Live fire trainingis an essential part of the development of every firefighter. However, despite its importance, there has been little discussion in fire service literature about what the objectives of live fire training should be and how best to achieve them.
我已经在固定设施和多个司法管辖区获得的现场消防教练工作了十多年，学生们从在大都会部门工作数十年到那些从事大都市部门的工作，到全新的，从未持有的新秀。在这些经验中，一个一致的主题已经出现了：作为消防服务，许多在实时火灾训练期间的常见目标不是重点。尽管我们的最佳意图，但大多数现场消防训练对参与的学生来说并不像它那样有价值。
相关的消防员培训
- Getting the Most Out of Acquired Structure Live Burns
- Live Fire Training: Lessons Learned in New Jersey
- 实时训练：您训练什么？
- Live-Fire Training: Much Preparation for Safety
This article will discuss live fire in fixed facilities or获得的结构，消防员进入建筑物的地方。虽然小规模的活火道具，例如dollhouse, candle flames, and others have a live fire element, they are fundamentally different in how they are used and what can be accomplished with them.
目标和教学模型
国家防火协会(NFPA)1001,Standard for Fire Fighter Professional Qualifications, addresses the basic job performance requirements a firefighter must meet, but it does not address how we should use live fire to teach or enhance these skills.NFPA 1403，Standard on Live Fire Training Evolutions，只有指出培训目标必须清楚地传达和记录，并且不会解决或建议指导模型或方法。确实解决了这些主题的几本书和文章通常建议一系列从中度到高度复杂的演变。普遍的信念似乎是，现场消防训练是消防员所学的所有技能都应在多机构运营中汇总在一起的地方。通过这样做，学生将学习如何在火场上应用他们的技能，同时有机会体验真正的火灾状况。
Although large-scale evolutions that mimic a fire response are valuable and necessary, this style of live fire training has several downsides. The first issue with evolutions is that most participants have little interaction with the fire itself; instead, they are focused on accomplishing their assigned task. This task-focused mindset distracts from their ability to pay attention to what thefireis doing, how it changes over time, and how it reacts to various outside forces including fireground actions such as water application and ventilation. This, in turn, reduces the live fire evolution to another skills drill that happens to have a fire somewhere in the general vicinity.
The second issue with large-scale live fire evolutions is that it becomes very difficult to create precise conditions that cue specific actions by the students. As the number of moving parts increases, it becomes virtually impossible to time the fire with the students’ arrival so that they are given specific visual, heat, and auditory cues. The result is a lack of consistency in fire presentation and difficulty in consistently reinforcing desired behavior and skills. Instead, instructors light the fire, and the students get what they get.
Finally, evolutions, especially complex ones, can be more dangerous. With multiple tasks happening simultaneously, the chances that something will get out of order or that there will be a failure increase. This is especially true in获得的结构, where delays in fire attack or uncoordinated ventilation can have disastrous results.
Large-scale evolutions are a critical part of any training program. Everyone responding to a fire should have a clear idea of where they fit into the overall fire response. Standard operating guidelines and tabletop training reinforced by large-scale evolutions are helpful for this. However, we should think of complex evolutions as coordination drills, where live fire is not required and may not even be desired.
Using Live Fire Training
如果进化中技能的表现不是最佳利用现场消防训练，那是什么？对于大多数学生而言，现场火灾训练的目标应分为三个主要类别，以下是：
- Normalization of the live fire environment.
- 建立现有技能的线索和背景。
- Building student self-efficacy (confidence).
Normalization of the Live Fire Environment
压力训练的主要目的是使个人在高压力环境中保持有效的表现，以增强对标准环境的熟悉程度，并教授在压力条件下保持有效任务绩效所必需的技能。1
对于初学者来说，燃烧的建筑物的内部是一个危险，黑暗，热和令人困惑的外国地方。在人类的经验中，确实没有其他类似的东西。结果，当新的和缺乏经验的消防员响应然后进入燃烧的建筑物时，他们充满了压力荷尔蒙。这种压力增加了心脏和呼吸率，降低了认知能力，并且不会很少引起感觉剥夺，例如听觉排斥和视力范围。普遍的信念是，随着消防员进行火灾，他将暴露于内部和外部条件，并逐渐对火灾环境的压力更具抵抗力。最终，他应该学会预测火如何行事以及火势行动将如何影响火。但是，在考虑这条预期的学习曲线时，我们需要承认一些事情。
First, most firefighters don’t actually respond to a lot of fires (how many times you were first in on the nozzle or performed a vent-enter-isolate-search at an active fire; most would be humbled to realize how low the number really is). This means it can take a long time—years perhaps—to develop true comfort in live fire. Second, and more importantly, a real fire is a very difficult learning environment; this does not mean that you can’t learn at real fires—quite the opposite. There are things you can only learn by going to real fires. However, it is tough learning, especially for the inexperienced.
由于人员的身份，新的消防员很少有一个高级会员或官员与他一起去教他。即使他有一个能够指导他在真正的火灾中的人，还有更少的时间来研究正在发生的事情以及他的工作如何影响环境。同样，在这些事件期间，新的消防员承受着极大的压力，因此由于感觉超负荷，他不太可能能够准确地感知正在发生的事情。
所有这些都意味着我们需要集中精力的火灾训练，以使我们的成员接触到消防环境，以便他们习惯它。我们需要使他们的火灾正常。通过这样做，我们将谜团夺走，减少恐惧，并使令人困惑的可预测。反过来，这减轻了事件的压力，这意味着消防员到达建筑物的镇定，并更有能力专注于周围发生的事情。
Establishing Cues and Context for Existing Skills
A Sonohomish (WA) County Academy fire student discussed his first experience on the nozzle at a house fire: “Literally, every step from rig to door and door to seat, I used exactly what was taught, and at no point was I unsure of what I needed to do with the conditions I was faced with. It was pretty much cut-and-paste from the acquired burns.”
新手和专家之间的许多重要区别之一是专家阅读初学者看不到的微妙线索的能力。2另一个重要的区别是专家能够了解他的知识/技能如何在陌生的情况下应用。
这是常见的和没有经验的新成员apply the physical skills they have learned incorrectly. In after-action reviews of real and training fires, we have found that, if the new firefighter has demonstrated competence with the skill, the cause of his mistake is almost always a result of one of the two issues mentioned above: He did not perceive the cues that would have told him what to do and when, or he did not know how to apply the skill to the unfamiliar environment.
（（1)Whatcom县（WA）消防局7的2018年最终燃烧的场景。（（相片by Michael Gustafson.)
During live fire training, instructors should create specific conditions (cues), then point out the cues to the students and have them perform the desired skill. The application of the skill is also discussed so that the students understand how the skill needs to be altered to fit the given context. This method allows the students to observe more fires and, with appropriate instruction, learn to pick out important cues and context and tie them to the skills they already have.
For example, in photo 2, the student is advancing upstairs to a fire on floor two. Observation groups were placed on the fire floor and the floor below. Two additional exits from floor two were available besides the stairwell, and an emergency exit plan was established. A charged hoseline staffed by an instructor with a partner was in place next to the camera taking the photo, and an exterior rapid intervention team line was staffed and in place. The firefighter shown had been trained on how to flow and move upstairs and had practiced this before at the training tower. The location of the fire was known, and the context of how the orientation of the stairs to the fire room would affect the fire attack was discussed. The fire was allowed to grow to the desired intensity, and the fire attack was made. This created a strong association for all participants between the cues created by the fire and the desired fire attack.
（（2)Pushing the stairs.
如上所述，新的消防员很少有人在培训中指出他们的技能线索和背景。这意味着，除非他们先前接受过培训来缩小差距，否则他们只是对何时以及如何做自己所教的事情做出了最好的猜测。这样，学到的经验教训可能非常有价值，但它们也可以导致规范化不良做法。在真正的火灾的动态环境中，除非您进行后罪名评论，否则不可能知道所有涉及的因素，因此尽管性能不佳，但仍然认为自己的行动是正确的，但人们仍能取得成功。
Rather than relying on time on the job and the hope that firefighters will experience specific conditions and learn the right lessons from them in the field, we can and should create the conditions and ensure that the right lessons are learned in training.
Building Student Self-Efficacy
You can train someone and teach him technique until you are blue in the face but, at some point, the athlete in question must go out there on the stage and “pull the trigger” when the time is right. What’s going to give you that ability to go from the physical skill you’ve learned to execution under pressure isconfidence.3
进行实时火灾训练时我们应该努力的最终目标是创造学生自我效能感。通常被描述为confidence，自我效能是一种信念，即人们可以做实现其目标所必需的事情。这种信念对于某人在任何舞台上都能表现出色至关重要。当我们进行现实的实时火灾训练，重点是使环境正常化并建立现有技能的线索和背景时，我们已经参与了建立积极自我效能的两种最重要的方法。
首先，创造积极的经验，使学生有机会成功地观察和克服挑战；这使学生对环境有一种掌握感。重要的是，这些经历是由讲师指导的。教师不仅需要安全性，还需要确保学生成功完成分配的任务。（这通常是火灾攻击，但这可能是针对任何火灾的任务。）失败会危害学生并破坏他们对未来表现的信念。这并不意味着不应允许学生犯错误，而是教师应帮助学生安全地克服这些错误，以便他们最终成功。
Second, we create positive, vicarious experiences that occur when students see others succeed and feel an increased sense of their own ability to succeed. Psychological studies have shown that when we see people like ourselves do something successfully, our own belief in our abilities goes up. For example, if I am in an observation group at a training fire and the nozzle firefighter makes a successful flow and move attack, my belief in my ability to make the same attack will increase; this is why the idea that every student must be on the nozzle is not accurate. Although it would be ideal for each student to be able to make an attack on a realistic fire, this is often not practical because of issues of time, budget, participants (especially instructors) taking too much heat, and the durability of the building (in the case of acquired structures). Rather than reducing the size of the fires to get everyone on the nozzle, we can focus on creating fewer but more realistic fires and use what we know about self-efficacy and psychology to maximize the experience for all students.
A New Model for Live Fire Training
所以,如果我们不会进行大规模的evolutions and instead focus on the goals mentioned above, what should live fire training look like? Most scenarios should consist of simple stations: Precharge and prestage hoselines and place most students in observation groups. Design the fire and instruction at each station to make students comfortable with one or more aspects of the live fire environment, create a specific cue for a specific action, create context for a specific skill, or reinforce a desired decision. Most drills can accomplish multiple objectives at once.
A heat evaluation drill is a simple drill that can be set up in most Class A fixed facilities. It is vital to understand that heat evaluation drills are designed to increase the student’s comfort in the environment and create cues for action; it is never a toughness test. The Class A fixed facility is ideal for the heat evaluation drill since fire conditions can be tightly controlled and easily replicated. We can create high heat conditions often with less risk since the building itself cannot burn.
在这次演习的一种变化中，学生开始在靠近火灾座位的燃烧建筑物内，观察点火和火的生长。随着火灾的增长，学生会以各种吸收热量的方式，热量和烟雾开始分层以及其他基本的火灾行为课程的提示。随着大火的进展，学生被移动到越来越远。最终，学生将几个房间远离大火甚至建筑物外。然后，学生们回到火上。随着它们越来越近，他们会提示他们根据声音和空气/烟雾运动来评估热量并根据此内部和其他内部线索定位火。最终，霍斯利线将扑灭大火。学生将在火灾攻击并进行通风时观察热量的变化。
Another station that can be set up in a Class A fixed facility or an acquired structure is a hallway fire attack drill. If the building has a hallway with the fire room at the end, conditions in the hallway can be varied to prompt everything from a pump can that can douse the fire to a flow-and-move fire. Two student groups can be staged at the entry to the hallway: the attack and observation groups. A charged safety line staffed by an instructor with a partner should also be in position to cover the hallway. Once the desired condition is created in the hallway, the attack group extinguishes the fire while the observation group watches.
例如，在照片3中，走廊中的沉重烟雾和火焰条件需要进行流动和移动攻击。观察小组观察到走廊的条件从需要泵可以罐头的东西转变为命中，关机和移动攻击，并最终转变为流动和移动攻击。然后，观察组观察到移动时流动的有效性。我们可以设计的可能的站点为特定行动创建线索和背景，将仅受设施以及学生和讲师的技能的限制。
（（3)从走廊大火的场景。
A common tool that is excellent for this type of training is the flashover trailer. Students, with no assigned task, observe fire growth in a compartment as it approaches flashover. This process allows the students to spend time with the fire, thereby reducing their natural discomfort in the live fire environment. The fire grows until the visual indicators of flashover are seen. Once the visual cue is demonstrated, the fire is knocked back. The fire is then often allowed to regrow so that the cue can be seen several times. A visual cue is tied to a specific action. A flashover simulator does not provide much context for action since the setup does not correspond to a realistic building layout, but it does provide normalization and a cue for action.
大多数消防演习应该由observatio组成n groups watching a fire being lit in a known location. As the fire grows, an instructor points out relevant cues and context. The attack team should prestage and charge their hoseline. When directed, they should then advance and attack the fire in a preplanned manner that corresponds with the condition created. Throughout the process, an instructor should accompany the nozzle firefighter to direct his actions. To some, this seems too simple. However, the lessons students can learn about interior fire behavior, cues and context for action, and normalization cannot be learned any other way. By using this style of drill, especially in fixed facilities, instructors can dial in an entire range of conditions for various locations to train cues and context.
It is important to remember that this is a training environment, and learning—not performance—is the goal. Putting out the fire and other fireground tasks in which we might engage are just a small part of what we are attempting to accomplish. Every part of the experience, from smoke movement, to heat buildup over time, to the sound of the hose stream against the walls, should be dissected and analyzed for lessons learned for the students.
The current state of live fire training is unstructured, with a wide variety of practices and policies, depending on your location. The general focus tends to be on large-scale evolutions that allow all portions of the firefighter skills set to be combined in a fire response. Although this has value, it skips some crucial steps in the firefighter’s development since it does not allow most participants to spend time with the fire.
To truly prepare the next generation for the challenges they will face when they cross the threshold into a burning building, we must reconsider the objectives of live fire training and adopt a new model that focuses on normalization of the live fire environment, establishes cues and context for existing skills, and creates student self-efficacy. This, in turn, will necessitate some changes in the mechanics of how we burn.
尾注
1. Cannon-Bowers J, E.S. (2008). Making Decisions Under Stress. American Psychological Association.
2. Bransford E，J.D。（12/5/21）。国家科学院出版社。从国家科学院出版社检索：https://www.nap.edu/read/9853/chapter/5.
3. Donaher J. (5/9/21). Lex Freidman Podcast. (L. Friedman, Interviewer).
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伊恩·贝内特is a captain in the Seattle (WA) Fire Department with 16 years of service. He is the president and owner of West Coast Fire Training and has a BA in chemistry.
