By Guido Calcagno
High-rise firefighting can present numerous dangers, concerns, and tactical obstacles that must be overcome to safely, effectively, and efficiently put out a fire stories into the sky. However, with the establishment of incident command, effective communication and stretching the appropriately sized hoseline to the seat of the fire must take place for the incident to be successful. One thing that is often overlooked is ensuring that the appropriate stairwells for fire attack and evacuation are designated. Establishing fire attack and evacuation stairwells prior to starting any other tactical objective lays the groundwork for successful firefighting to take place.
We often use the term “coordinated fire attack” when referring to our “technique” when extinguishing a fire safely. This will be compounded with problems such as increased reflex time, occupants in the stairwell, and the inability to horizontally ventilate the fire using traditional means due to the height and location of the fire in the building. When thinking about these problems they can seem overwhelming. With the right preparation and appropriate size-up by the first companies on scene, these issues can be overcome while ensuring we operate safely, effectively, and efficiently.
Roles and Responsibilities
首先解决的角色engine and first truck company arriving on the scene. It is the responsibility of these two companies to form a fire investigation team and stop at the fire alarm control panel (FACP) to identify the location of the reported fire floor prior to any vertical movement. The two company officers have several responsibilities that should be taken into consideration prior to making the ascent to the fire floor. High-rise buildings are required to have a life safety plan (aka Massey Plan) near the front desk or FACP, which should be requested as soon as possible from building staff by the first fire companies. This provides a wealth of information regarding the building and may also play into our tactical decision making as the incident progresses.
相关消防员培训
The 2020 High-Rise Firefighting Supplement
FL High-Rise Condo Concerns: A Fire Officer’s Prospective
出于与本文相关的目的，该计划将提供有关的信息：
- standpipe locations
- 救援援助领域
- people registered as needing assistance and their unit number (may be outdated so ensure to confirm with building personnel that the information is accurate)
- stairwells and their locations
- smoke towers
- pressurized stairwells
- stairwells with access to the roof or bulkhead doors
Although waiting for the life safety plan to arrive if not easily accessible is not necessarily practical, the firefighter or lobby control company assigned to the FACP can keep the fire investigation team notified of pertinent information as it is presented to them when the information becomes available.
消防员或公司留在FACP中有两个与楼梯间有关的重要工作：确保所有楼梯间门都被解锁，并尽快向建立乘客进行公告，让他们知道最安全的出口手段。通过按压面板接口上的按钮或翻转位于面板上的切换开关，通常通过按下拆开门来完成。确保楼梯间门是解锁，可以让消防员轻松进入所有楼层，以及如果误认为他们已经错误地进入了错误的楼梯，允许乘客离开楼梯间。2003年，由于楼梯间的门在进入他们不知道是火灾攻击之后，伊利诺伊州芝加哥芝加哥的施泰县行政大厦的六人陷入苏利诺岛的辛巴哥举行的悲惨悲惨2020）。
Making announcements to selected floors directing people to the correct stairwell will limit the amount of foot traffic in the fire attack stairwell, making it easier for firefighters to operate. Buildings with smoke-proof towers or pressurized stairwells will inform their residents (commercial or residential) to use these protected stairwells for a safer means of egress unless otherwise directed through fire drills or via floor layout maps posted in various locations. Although people may still use the fire attack stairwell, it is much more manageable to relocate only a few people versus several people if the correct notifications have been made consistently throughout the operation.
一旦FACP已经解决并且火灾的位置已经认识到，现在就有足够的信息来记住适当的电梯，这将使消防公司安全地在防火地板下方安全地提升两到三层（这取决于您的部门议定书）。货运电梯是首选的，因为它们通常可以在所有地板上停止，并且通常可以更大。在进入电梯之前，所有成员都应该意识到在进入电梯之前的楼梯间位置，并且在电梯失去控制的情况下门关闭。国际建筑守则（IBC）（2013）（2013年）要求至少来自所有高层建筑的两次楼梯出口，除非建筑物大于420英尺，则需要至少三个楼梯间。
此信息对于继电器对电梯上升的所有成员来说都很重要。提供负责电梯操作的消防员干燥擦除标记将有助于保持所有在汽车中行驶的所有成员的问责制，以及让他们能够在与所有成员内部相关的门内部写入关键信息。诸如快速干预团队，火灾单位和箭头的位置等项目，指示楼梯间走廊的距离和一侧可能非常有用。如果电梯在润热或烟雾受损的地板上打开，这会增加安全系数，以防止成员爬到露天轴中。这也可以消除由消防调查团队的公司军官指定的消防攻击和疏散楼梯间的困惑。
Designating Fire Attack and Evacuation Stairwells
Considerations must be made when selecting fire attack and evacuation stairwells. This can weigh heavily on how the incident will unfold for the safety of both fire department personnel and civilians. Nonsprinklered buildings are concerning for firefighters when it comes to ensuring proper stairwell selection. Standpipe requirements for nonsprinklered buildings state that a standpipe outlet cannot exceed 130 feet from any given point (Magee, 2018). Older buildings may have standpipe outlets that are in precarious locations that may include a stairwell with a smoke-proof tower or pressurized stairwell. For those unfamiliar with a smoke-proof tower, this is an enclosure between a hallway and a stairwell to provide a margin of safety for occupants using this stairwell for egress. Within this opening there is a louver or window-like system that allows smoke to exit the building similarly to that of a chimney. This separation between hallway and stairwell allows building occupants to exit the fire floor without compromising the integrity of the stairwell. Buildings with smoke-proof towers will recommend their occupants to use the smoke-proof tower for evacuation because this is a safer route of travel if people are trying to leave the fire floor.
当拉伸软管管道从地板下面fire this is now a consideration that weighs on the company officer designating the fire attack stairwell because of the increased life safety hazard in the stairwell from the beginning of the fire until the end. Barring an extreme circumstance—and keeping in mind that “convenience” is not an extreme circumstance—the standpipe in a smoke-proof tower should not be used if given the option. This will compromise the integrity of the stairwell once the doors are opened to the fire floor, creating a flow path from a high-pressure area to a low-pressure area, that being the stairwell. Considerations should be made to connect to the standpipe, stretch the hose through the hallway the floor below, and ascend using an alternative stairwell. Extra hose may be required, however this is a safer option for civilians and firefighters. Bear in mind if we are not considering saving lives, we are merely here to put out a compartmentalized contents fire.
Pressurized stairwells are designed to prevent smoke from entering when the door on the fire floor is opened. Thepressurization system旨在防止烟雾泄漏通过将清洁空气喷射到楼梯外壳中通过闭门泄漏到楼梯上，使得楼梯中的压力大于相邻的压力fire compartment(躺,2014)。如果楼梯间的门被打开,system is intended to maintain a flow of air through the open doorway to oppose smoke flow and prevent contamination of the stair enclosure (Lay, 2014). Although this system is designed to keep the stairwell safer, it runs the risk of becoming compromised if too many people start to exit simultaneously or doors are propped open by either civilians or firefighters. As noted elsewhere by John Ceriello and Pete Van Dorpe, if there is consideration from incident command at any point that a stairwell must be pressurized (even a stairwell is not pressurized already), measures should be given to pressurizing the fire attack stairwell prior to evacuation stairwell.
When the designation of stairwells is made it, is imperative that this is announced over the tactical channel for all members to hear. The firefighter or lobby control company assigned to the FACP can make occupants throughout the entire building aware of the safest way to exit by repeating building announcements as needed. Once the stairwells are designated, they will still need be searched. This is particularly true with the fire attack stairwell. Someone should be assigned to search five or so floors above the fire floor prior to the doorway to the hallway of the fire floor being opened. Once opened, a flow path will be created that may be extremely intense if this is wind-driven fire that has left its compartment. Conditions of a wind-driven fire are untenable with turnout gear, thus giving an occupant without protection minimal chance for survival. This would also require that resources be used to remove a victim from the stairwell to medical care.
Types of Stairwells
各种建筑物中有许多类型的楼梯间。这将解决您可能在高层中看到的最常见类型的楼梯间。
U-Return Stairs
U-return stairs are a common design in high-rise buildings, especially in modern construction. U-return stairs consist of two flights of stairs with a landing between each floor. This type of stairwell design allows us to modify our hose lead out to allow us to do more work with less people. In some instances, your whole crew may not be able to make the ascent at the same time. By preconnecting all lengths of your hose on the floor below the fire and leading out a dry line one-half floor above the fire while stretching hose, we can eliminate approximately 50 feet of hose from potentially becoming tangled in the stairwell. Once the line is charge with water and our standpipe is set at our desired pressure, the weight of the water will assist us in making the turn into the hallway. This method would allow us to get a considerable distance down a hallway prior to the firefighter on the heel moving into the doorway to address the pinch point. If this is the method of lead out you will be attempting, make sure that when stretching the dry line up the stairs no couplings are brought up to the landing; these can get caught on the stairs if they are grated. Removing the coupling would require you to place a member in a dangerous position to alleviate a problem that can be avoided. Ensure that you do not lead out up the second set of stairs past the landing. This will create a pinch point that may need to be addressed. Please remember that using this method is contingent on fire and stairwell conditions.
直跑楼梯
Straight run stairs are another common stair. They ascend just like it sounds, straight. If you preplan the buildings in your response district, you may see that this type of stairwell can run directly into a unit. If this is the case it, would be an excellent time to conduct a five-minute drill to discuss how you would lead out through a neighboring unit if this was your only option based on standpipe location.
Scissor Stairs
Scissor stairs consist of two stairs which crisscross inside the same stairwell enclosure and are separated by a partition. These type of stairwells present some challenges for all of those operating or attempting to exit a high-rise fire. Stairwell doors to scissor stairs are in close proximity to each other and are sometimes improperly marked by the building. For firefighters to become properly oriented on the fire floor, they should perform a size-up two floors below the fire. This will allow firefighters to orient themselves with the proper door they will use to exit the stairwell prior to making their push down the hall for extinguishment. Some scissor stairs may have standpipe outlets located every other floor. For engine company officers, it is important to recognize if you need more hose to reach the fire prior to extinguishment operations unfolding.
Fire Escapes
Several older high-rise buildings will have exterior fire escapes. Using a fire escape for either fire attack or evacuation should be avoided if at all possible, but our jobs are truly dynamic and situations will vary. Even though the fire escape may not be part of our offensive plan, we still need to consider that there may be civilians attempting to exit using this route. For that reason it is important for any incident commander (IC) or search team to check the fire escapes. If you are the IC or policy writer, consider designating someone to periodically check the exterior of the building for people on the fire escape so there is accountability.
Areas of Refuge
避难区是防火额期和冒烟的区域，无法使用楼梯可以登记撤离援助和等待指示或援助（美国残疾人法令，2010）。美国残疾人法案（2010年）指出，建筑物必须直接进入出口楼梯或装备待机电力的电梯。这是楼梯间自身中经常发现的一个区域，以提供从火灾和烟雾受到威胁的区域的保护。该区域的重要性是两倍。首先，在执行楼梯搜索时必须检查这些区域，特别是如果生命安全计划表明有一个人在撤离时可能需要帮助。请记住，并非所有生命安全计划都是最新的。如果您在IC的能力上行事，请使用可靠的建筑人员来验证生命安全计划是最新的，并向所有已知需要帮助的人发出询问。建筑物人员也可以针对回答大堂电话或联系他们所知道的人可能需要帮助待遇，以便在需要疏散或需要医疗援助或需要医疗援助时留在理性或转到适当的楼梯间。
第二个方面u避难区域的利益s in the event communications go awry. Areas of rescue assistance must have a two-way communication system that firefighters can use to contact lobby command (Americans with Disabilities Act, 2010). The communication system will connect to a central control point (FACP for instance), or to a public telephone system if the central control point is not constantly attended (Americans with Disabilities Act, 2010). The person assigned to FACP needs to have sufficient knowledge of how the FACP operates. This includes the ability to make announcements and answer calls from an area of rescue assistance or stairwell phones. This person should have a writing utensil to keep track of all calls for help or assistance coming in to the FACP, as well as documentation of the time they were removed and to where. Maintaining accountability is very significant as the incident progresses.
***
High-rise buildings can present a number of complex problems. Through effective communication and proper stairwell selection by the fire investigation team we can start to ensure the incident will run safely, effectively, and efficiently from the top down. A variety of training scenarios will allow you to start to develop an action plan for almost any incident; this will make recognition-primed decision making applicable before the incident becomes one that cannot be easily controlled. Little things such as looking at the location of stairwells on a building floor plan prior to ascending or writing the location of stairwells on an elevator door can heighten the situational awareness of all members allowing them to remain more aware of their surroundings. Each situation will be dynamic. Through proper stairwell identification and selection we can ensure the safety of all people throughout the building, including firefighters, as well as make informed tactical decisions that can save numerous lives.
References
Americans with Disabilities Act. (2010). Accessible Means of Egress.Required Means of Egress [IBC Sect 1007.1 (2003), Sect. 1003.2.13 (2000)]. Retrieved February 13, 2020, from Guide to ADA Standards: https://www.access-board.gov/guidelines-and-standards/buildings-and-sites/about-the-ada-standards/guide-to-the-ada-standards/chapter-4-accessible-means-of-egress
Groves, A. (2020, March 26). Sinificant Illinois Fires: Cook County Administratino Building Fire.University of Illinois Library. IL. Retrieved from University of Illinois; Significant Illinois Fires: Cook County Administration Building Fire: http://guides.library.illinois.edu/c.php?g=416856&p=2842528
Lay, S. (2014). Pressurization Systems Do Not Work and Present a Risk to Life Safety. In S. Lay,Case Studies in Fire Safety(Vol. Volume 1, pp. 13-17). Elsevier. Retrieved February 13, 2020, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214398X13000046
Magee, Clay. “Standpipes 101, Part 1: A Beginner’s Guide to Standpipe Firefighting.”Retrieved January 29, 2020, from Fire Engineering://www.sacthai.com/2018/12/05/207023/standpipes-101-part-1/
RLG A Services. (2013, February 28).The Code Corner High-Rise Buildings.Retrieved January 29, 2020, from The Code Corner: https://specsandcodes.typepad.com/the_code_corner/2013/02/high-rise-buildings.html
Guido Calcagnohas been a firefighter/paramedic with the Chicago (IL) Fire Department for 15 years. He has a master’s degree in public safety administration and is currently involved with high-rise operations training for the department.
