由于车辆火灾是如此普遍，并且在这些事件发生的伤害频率相对较低，因此许多消防员变得自满，并将其视为常规甚至滋扰电话。车辆火灾绝非常规，如果我们将它们视为普通的服务呼吁，则可以迅速升级为重大事件。燃烧的车辆可能会开始向您的发动机公司滚动，引擎盖支撑杆可能会变成空降的弹丸并伤害消防员，或者分心的驾驶者可能会在公路事件中撞到火器。
根据国家消防协会的数据，平均每年有223,300个高速公路或公路大火。美国消防局每2.3分钟就会对车辆大火做出反应。1Although most firefighter injuries occur while fighting structure fires, 1,100 firefighters are injured annually while fighting vehicle fires.2
RELATED FIREFIGHTER TRAINING
Vehicle Fires: Is It Time to Change Our Training?
EXPECT THE UNEXPECTED IN VEHICLE FIRES
Highway Operations
车辆火灾呈现出无数的危险，可能众所周知但被低估了。这些危害之一是应对高速公路车辆的火灾（尤其是在恶劣天气下或晚上）。公路运营是消防员，紧急医疗服务（EMS）专业人士，警察，拖车司机和运输部门工人最危险的事件之一。我们的车辆因受损/分心的驾驶员而以惊人的速度撞击。
在过去的十年中，在高速公路上运营时的响应者安全已成为当务之急。现在，大多数部门对高速公路事件的紧急响应程序都使用高级警告技术，阻塞，安全定位和高可见性个人防护设备（PPE）决定了。3“Move Over” laws and the related public education programs have brought more attention to the dangers. In photo 1, a temporary traffic control zone has been established using several emergency services vehicles as firefighters stretch a hoseline to make an initial attack on this truck fire.
（1）除非另有说明，否则作者的照片。（布莱恩·约翰逊（Brian Johnson）的照片。）
2016年，新泽西州发布了“交通事故管理安全性（TIMS）应急人员指南”的第3版，以制定全州范围内的全州范围指南，以应对有限访问的高速公路和其他道路事件的应急响应。所有消防局成员必须遵循维护安全走廊，使用阻止火灾设备以及在所有高速公路事件（包括车辆火灾）上使用事件命令系统（ICS）的最佳实践。大多数车辆火灾根据这些准则根据从车道清除事件所需的时间指定为小型或中间事件。4
我们必须精通车辆火灾在高速公路上运行。尽管人员安全始终是优先事项，但我们必须减轻事件并尽快清除现场。资源有限的较小部门需要使设备和机组人员重新服务以处理其他电话。此外，打开关闭车道并返回正常的高速公路流量有助于防止次要事件。
了解您当地的高速公路
消防部门的机构运营商和公司官员必须知道他们的当地高速公路及其在主要和次要响应区域的所有细微差别。许多有限访问的高速公路都有指定的汽车，卡车或高占用车道。此外，可能有用于紧急服务使用的天桥或中位切口。知道它们的位置，以及英里标记，开/关坡道以及由于施工或道路配置而可能难以访问的高速公路部分。了解响应区域中高速公路的各个方面对于您的前大小至关重要。
Arrival and Size-Up
Life safety is our first priority at every emergency. Begin considering your size-up while responding to the fire, accounting for potential rescue or civilian injuries based on the dispatch. If the call is dispatched as a motor vehicle crash with a fire, be prepared to go into rescue mode on arrival. If an occupant is trapped in a vehicle that is on fire, consider whether extinguishing the fire before initiating extrication is more beneficial. If the patient is physically entrapped, initiate fire attack immediately and ensure that an apparatus equipped with extrication tools is also responding. If the victim is not trapped but is still in the car, consider immediate rescue or performing simultaneous fire suppression and victim removal. Often, bystanders or police officers will have removed victims prior to fire department arrival. Be prepared to initiate medical treatment for life-threatening injuries if EMS is not on scene or is delayed.
您的到达场景报告应重点介绍生命安全，事件稳定和财产保护的正常事件优先事件。始终确认事件位置，大火的范围以及任何伤害/陷阱；识别暴露；更新场景访问/分期指令，以响应其他单位；如果需要，请求其他资源；并建立命令。
事件早期请求帮助，尤其是在限量上的高速公路上。其他公司可能会面临较长的响应时间或流量延迟。建立自动AID协议，以确保足够的火灾和EMS设备已经从高速公路上的相反方向做出反应，以应对车道封闭和橡皮图造成的延误。
对于涉及卡车，休闲车（RV）或其他大型车辆的火灾，请尽快呼吁额外的发动机和水招标（照片2）。预计这些火灾将在大火充分扑灭之前耗尽您的船上助力箱中的水。
（2）Photo by Dennis Symons.
许多大型汽车火灾也需要大修。在照片2中，请注意大火如何损害拖车的结构完整性。在限量上的高速公路上，考虑将发动机送到带有消防栓的附近地面街道上，然后手动向高速公路手动伸展供应线。对于高架道路上的火灾，请考虑将供应软管降低到第二引擎或油轮/嫩街上的供应软管。
Stage apparatus at vehicle fires uphill and upwind, if possible; quickly deploy wheel chocks under the burning vehicle’s tires. In numerous incidents, burning vehicles have begun to roll downhill, even on very slight grades, after fire department arrival. Neglecting this basic safety measure has resulted in avoidable apparatus damage.
On arrival, perform your size-up, and ensure your scene safety according to Federal Highway Administration’s Traffic Incident Management System (TIMS) guidelines or your local protocol. Choose the safest and most appropriate approach and the proper hoseline to stretch. Vehicle fires encompass an infinite number of scenarios, especially those threatening or spreading to exposures (structures or other vehicles). Use the most appropriate fire attack methods to quickly and effectively mitigate the incident.
The hoseline stretched must provide an adequate fire flow to overcome the high heat release rates of modern vehicle fires. It is recommended that no smaller than a 1½-inch attack line capable of flowing a minimum of 125 gallons per minute (gpm) be stretched. Firefighters should be in full turnout gear (including hoods), wearing their self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) and being masked up and on air. Because of the potential dangers of flammable metals and fluids, allow no skin exposure.
在照片3中，该事件的消防员在上风中上风。喷嘴消防员穿着完整的PPE/SCBA，已经伸展了1¾英寸的处理方法，以发动火灾。公司官员接近燃烧卡车上的车轮。
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车辆火灾危害
热和有毒烟雾
如果您仍在使用助推器线和没有SCBA的车辆大火作斗争，请考虑以下有关车辆火灾产生的热量和有毒气体的信息。现代车辆主要由聚氨酯泡沫（PUF）和塑料制造，包括大多数内部饰面，头条新闻，身体部位，门和窗户；座椅，手臂和头部休息，仪表板都主要由PUF构造。挡泥板，扰流板，保险杠和其他外部部分现在可以由反应注射的聚氨酯构建。5
PUF fires produce very high heat release rates, toxic fumes, and temperatures nearing 1,500°F, as a National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) PUF test has shown.6一旦PUF点燃，大火就会迅速散布在整个车辆和附近的暴露范围内。7,8PUF开火：“产生氮和碳氧化物的剧毒烟雾，包括极具毒性的碳氢化合物化合物，例如氰化氢。”6燃烧的PUF还会产生许多其他有毒，有毒和致癌化合物。8Wear your SCBA!
Bumper Pistons and Struts
1970年代和1980年代的车辆（许多仍在旅途中）具有吸收能量的保险杠活塞，如果暴露于热量，可能会爆炸并变成弹丸。在一个近距离的电话中，1987年的沃尔沃保险杠活塞爆炸了。一块活塞穿过到达的消防车的挡风玻璃，伤害了设备操作员。9Hood and trunk/hatch struts present the same danger if exposed to fire; they contain compressed gas at 1,500 pounds per square inch (psi).10In a January 2005, Sacramento, California, incident, a superheated strut under the hood of a car on fire exploded. The one-inch cylinder exited the vehicle and passed through a firefighter’s leg before landing more than 50 feet away.11
易燃金属
易燃金属也对消防员构成风险。众所周知，应用于燃烧镁的水会引起暴力，有时爆炸性的反应。从1950年代开始，镁被广泛用于Volks-Wagen发动机块和曲柄箱中。现代车辆现在包含许多镁组件，例如动力列车，悬架，底盘，方向盘臂，转向柱支架，齿轮箱，离合器外壳和油锅。12Always anticipate that vehicles contain magnesium components and there is a strong likelihood they will be involved in the fire. Often, you won’t know whether it is a flammable metals fire until you apply water to the vehicle, as shown in the helmet camera image in photo 4.
（4）图片由Erik Eitel。
Generally, at all vehicle fires, you should initially knock down the fire and attempt to cool the vehicle from a distance. If your hose stream contacts burning flammable metals, you may see a brilliant and powerful reaction that can shower firefighting personnel with burning embers of hot magnesium and other alloys. This is why it is imperative that you wear full turnout gear and have no exposed skin.
You may also see a distinctive and brilliant “white” area burning typically coming from the floor on the driver’s side near the base of the steering column. This is likely magnesium. Use a straight or solid stream to rapidly cool the areas surrounding the burning magnesium. Concentrate on first extinguishing the rest of the fire that is away from the combustible metals. Once the entire area is sufficiently cooled, the burning magnesium will typically self-extinguish. If not, consider using a Class D extinguisher, although this is generally not required to extinguish the small amount of combustible metals that may flare up during fire suppression.
Air Bags
Modern vehicles can contain up to 10 (or more) air bags. There are documented cases of activations and explosion of the various types of air bags and their inflator devices at vehicle fires. Steering wheel and front passenger air bag inflators contain sodium azide. Under normal circumstances, the air bag activates when a small electrical charge ignites sodium azide inside the air bag inflator, which rapidly converts to nitrogen gas.
An air bag fully inflates in 0.03 seconds.13叠氮化钠在527°F和626°F之间的温度下分解并自发点燃。14我们已经知道，乘客隔室大火将很容易超过该温度，因此气囊可以在车辆火灾和伤害人员中有可能激活，这也就不足为奇了。
Compressed gas inflator cylinders containing pressurized inert gas control the side curtain and other air bags. Under the extreme heat of a vehicle fire, these compressed gas cylinders will rapidly heat up and activate the air bag, or the cylinder itself may overpressurize and rupture. An air bag inflator cylinder that ruptures in a fire can become a flying projectile. Avoid leaning into the passenger compartment of vehicles on fire to reduce the risk of injury by an air bag or an air bag inflator cylinder explosion.
Alternative Fuels
Modern vehicles run on a variety of fuels including gasoline, ethanol, diesel, compressed natural gas, and electricity stored in battery packs. Each of these poses its own potential challenges to firefighters operating at vehicle fires. Modern “gasoline” vehicles are actually running on a mixture called E10, which is typically 90% gasoline and 10% ethanol. Some vehicles run on “flex fuel” (formerly “E85”), which is a blend of between 51% and 83% ethanol and gasoline.15如果您正在与车辆大火作斗争，并且涉及车辆的乙醇混合燃料，则需要使用耐酒（AR）泡沫溶液有效地抑制蒸气并扑灭火灾。
标准班ss B foam will not be effective on a fire involving an ethanol mixture. You must use alcohol-resistant agents capable of suppressing vapors and extinguishing an ethanol-blended fuel fire. Additionally, flames from burning ethanol are nearly invisible to the naked eye, especially during daylight hours.16
塑料燃油箱
Firefighters are experiencing an increase in fuel spill fires involving flammable ethanol/gasoline mixtures. Since the late 1980s, more plastics have been used in place of pressed steel for fuel tanks.17Up to 70% of all fuel tanks produced in North America are made of plastics. Although plastic fuel tanks will retard the rise in fuel temperature from a well-involved vehicle fire, they will soften, sag, and eventually release the fuel onto the ground, potentially creating a running fuel fire18需要使用AR泡沫（照片5-6）。另外，干燥的灭火器也可能在此类火灾中有效。预测涉及良好的车辆火灾处的燃油箱故障，并远离流动燃料的潜在路径。
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Less common, but still dangerous, are fires involving vehicles powered by alternative fuels such as compressed natural gas (CNG), marked by a blue diamond badging (photo 7). Although these vehicles make up only about 0.1% of the total vehicles on the road in the United States, CNG is becoming extremely common on refuse trucks and public transit buses (12-15%). Some light trucks and cars, such as the Honda Civic, the Chevrolet Silverado 2500, and the Ford F250, may also be CNG-powered.19CNG转换套件可用于许多其他乘用车，卡车和SUV。
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当CNG车辆着火时，请谨慎行事。发生了几起涉及CNG车辆的爆炸案例，包括在华盛顿的西雅图（本田思域）；印第安纳州印第安纳波利斯；和新泽西州汉密尔顿（垃圾车）。
CNG车辆燃油箱加压到3,600 psi，并配备了压力缓解设备（PRDS）。如果响应不涉及坦克的CNG车辆大火，请进行正常的消防操作。188金博网网址多少However, if the CNG tanks are involved or the heat of the fire has raised the tank’s temperature and activated the PRD (generally resulting in a loud jet of fire emitting from the PRD), set up a safety perimeter of at least 100 feet around the vehicle, protect exposures, and let the vehicle burn. Either the tanks will rupture or the CNG will vent until the tanks are empty.
如果大火撞击CNG坦克，而PRD无法运行，则坦克中的压力将迅速升高。当压力达到8,000-9,000 psi时，坦克将失败。即使PRD正常运行，CNG圆柱体也只能在大火中生存约20至30分钟。20在新泽西州汉密尔顿举行的2016年垃圾车火灾的旁观者视频中，您可以清楚地看到并听到来自PRD的火焰和燃气。尽管PRD似乎是按照设计的，但气缸仍会遭受灾难性的故障，并且在消防员到达之前仅爆炸了几秒钟。21
电动汽车
尽管电动汽车（EV）在我们的道路上变得越来越普遍，但许多消防员尚未对电动汽车大火做出反应。他们应该熟悉电动汽车制造商网站提供的广泛的紧急响应信息。
例如，对于S型号，特斯拉建议采用标准方法来打击不涉及高压电池的火灾。但是，涉及电池的大火可能更具挑战性。根据特斯拉的说法，涉及电池的火灾（在底盘上）可能需要直接向电池施加3,000加仑的水才能灭火。访问电池可能很困难。代理商报告说，他们需要“倾斜”汽车以有效攻击底盘电池射击。即使在电池上连续涂水90分钟后，这些看似扑灭的火灾也顽固地重新点燃了。特斯拉的紧急响应者指南报告说，电池最多可能需要24小时才能熄灭，并且可以随时重新点燃。特斯拉电池火将产生有毒的蒸气；完整的PPE/SCBA是必须的。特斯拉告知消防部门，每当车辆的锂离子电池碰撞或火灾都会损坏，以确保拖曳公司将车辆与储物船上的其他车辆和建筑物分开。 Damaged batteries can undergo “thermal runaway” and spontaneously catch fire several hours later. Firefighters should familiarize themselves with the emergency responder guidelines on the various manufacturer Web sites.22
Fighting the Fire
我们中的很多人被教导要战斗车辆火灾的ttacking from upwind, approaching at a 45° angle, and knocking down the fire from a distance with a straight stream before advancing to the vehicle. Sometimes, scene conditions will alter this approach. Knowing what we know about hood and trunk/hatch struts, even the 45° approach might not be as safe as previously thought. Depending on scene conditions or our response route, we may be unable to stage the apparatus upwind of the fire. If you have to choose, would you rather be uphill or upwind? We have SCBA to protect us from the smoke. On a hill, a burning vehicle may roll back toward the apparatus and a flammable liquids fire will flow downhill. Park the apparatus uphill from the scene. The first-arriving engine officer may face the dilemma of whether to position the apparatus uphill and upwind of a burning vehicle or use it as a barrier to block traffic. These choices may be mutually exclusive. Be ready to improvise or alter your approach as needed on arrival.
Many engine companies use front bumper attack lines. As the first-due engine, attack the fire and stage the apparatus to block oncoming traffic. With what we know about the potential for flying projectiles, we need to provide also an adequate buffer zone between the apparatus and the fire. If you are using a front bumper attack line, ensure that you are stretching an adequate length of hose or can quickly shut down the line, add a length, and resume operations with minimal interruption.
If you begin with a standard fire attack and the fuel tank fails, creating a running/flowing flammable liquids fire, you must quickly switch to a foam operation. At an EV fire involving the batteries, call for additional engines and tankers/tenders. Other large vehicles like tractor trailers and RVs will also necessitate calling extra companies with more water, especially if you’re working on a highway and have no access to fire hydrants. When fighting fires in over-the-road trucks, you must determine what cargo it is hauling (flammable liquids? hazardous materials?) as soon as possible; this could also dramatically alter your approach.
您多久回应一次发动机舱火，无法打开引擎盖？这项简单的任务甚至可以使最调味的消防员谦虚。首先，“在撬动之前先尝试。”如果它完好无损，请尝试从车内释放引擎盖。
If the driver’s compartment is involved in fire or the hood release is inoperable because of fire damage, you’ll need an alternate approach. Initially, to knock down the fire, try striking the corner of the hood on the latch side (vs. the hinge side) with the halligan pike and drive the pike into the hood. Then push up on the halligan, bending up the corner of the hood so you can access the engine compartment for fire suppression (photos 8-9). Use the back of a flathead ax to crease the hood next to where it was spiked with the halligan to make this technique easier. If available, consider using a hydraulic spreader to spread or “tent” the edge of the hood just above the front suspension to access the engine compartment.
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Another common method for opening the hood is to use the rotary saw to cut a “V” around the hood latch (photo 10) or to make a horizontal cut across the entire hood (photo 11). The horizontal cut is beneficial if you’re unsure of whether it’s a standard opening hood (latch at front, hinges near windshield) or a reverse opening hood (with the hinges near the grille), which may be found on Saabs, Corvettes, and other cars. You can use a reciprocating saw to cut the hood latch or the hinges.
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Another method that I’ve had limited success with, but is still an option, is to remove or crush the grille and attempt to use the fork end of the halligan to wrap and twist the hood release cable. Use caution if using a saw on an electric vehicle hood since a cut too deep into the hood may damage the electrical components. Ultimately, getting the hood open might require a bit of improvisation, especially if your engine doesn’t carry a saw or hydraulic tools.
车辆是我们最常见的事件之一。通常，与结构性火灾相比，它们会缓解没有负面后果，消防员受伤率低。这使我们中的许多人都变得自满，并将这些事件视为理所当然。消防员必须在这些事件场景中工作时被击中的风险最小化，伸展适当的攻击线，塞在车辆的轮子上，与SCBA一起穿完整的PPE，并欣赏许多相关的危险。记住，是不是只是另一个车辆大火！
References
1.“美国车辆火灾问题类型的车辆2006-2010年平均值。”马蒂·艾伦斯（Marty Ahrens），国家消防协会，2013年1月。https://bit.ly/2x0krmq。
2.“消防员消防员受伤的模式。”理查德·坎贝尔（Richard Campbell），国家消防协会，2016年12月。https://bit.ly/3g8ixgf。
3。“Resources.” Emergency Responder Safety Institute.https://bit.ly/3g8ixgf。
4.“交通事故管理管理安全指南版本3。”法律与公共安全部总检察长办公室，2016年8月1日。file：/// c：/users/robertm/downloads/statewide%20Guidelines%20Ver%203%20Final%20Final%20With%20OAG%20Cover%20Cover%20Letter.pdf。
5.“聚氨酯汽车工业。”American Chemistry Council.https://bit.ly/2EpM0O0。
6.“聚氨酯泡沫的火灾危害。”克劳斯布鲁克纳和同事，2014年11月。https://bit.ly/33164aj。
7 “Flame spread and smoke temperature of full-scale fire test of car fire.” Dayan Li, et al.热工程中的案例研究。第10卷，2017年9月。https://bit.ly/306TQ17。
8。“The fire toxicity of polyurethane foams.” Sean McKenna and Terence Hull.Fire Science Reviews, April 21, 2016.https://bit.ly/2CJei5J。
9.“飞行保险杠会造成伤害。”消防员关闭电话，2009年10月17日。https://bit.ly/3jng2qn。
10.“升力支撑。”AMS汽车。https://bit.ly/2OXJD72。
11.“ NY-FF LODD，Strut Expl，FDNY＆Drills Update。”消防员封闭电话，2005年2月8日。https://bit.ly/39bdffo。
12。“Magnesium Car Parts: A Far Reach for Manufacturers? Part 1.” Gary Kardys,Engineering 360, November 25, 2017.https://bit.ly/3f3qwTF。
13.“安全气囊如何工作？”约瑟夫·梅罗拉（Joseph F. Merola），科学美国人。https://bit.ly/3064uvj。
14.“叠氮化钠的情况说明书。”东北大学环境健康与安全办公室，2010年7月。https://bit.ly/2BDOqYk。
15.“乙醇。”埃克森美孚/美孚燃料。https://bit.ly/2p4ndhu。
16。“Firefighting Foam Principles Instructor Manual, Module 6.” TransCaer.com.https://bit.ly/3jk3qvz。
17.“聚合物复合汽油罐。”Lucio Boccacci等。俄克拉荷马大学，2004年4月30日。https://bit.ly/2X1ndGB。
18。“Steel vs. plastics: The competition for light-vehicle fuel tanks.” Peter J. Alvarado,The Journal of The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society，1996年7月。https://bit.ly/39vlpg2。
19.“车辆：请参阅CNG上运行的各种车辆。”CNG现在。https://bit.ly/30ryozu。
20。“First Responder Guide: CNG and LNG Vehicle Fuel Systems.” Agility Fuel Solutions, July 2017.https://bit.ly/2DcuEUh。
21。Youtube.https://bit.ly/3gdugdu。
22。“2016+ Model S Emergency Response Guide.” Tesla,https://bit.ly/2X4bc2X。
史蒂文·B·施纳德（Steven B. Schnaudt）是28年资深的消防和一顶帽子吗tain with the Robbinsville Township (NJ) Fire Department. He has a bachelor of science degree from Trenton State College and is a New Jersey Level 2 fire instructor and a nationally registered paramedic.
